The WWW Virtual LibraryHistory of India

This site is dedicated to information on various aspects of history of India. We have tried to cover most of the related topics and will greatly appreciate any other contribution in this respect.

Topical

The potpourri of cultures that it is, India’s new identity is founded upon its cultural, religious, culinary and lingual diversity than anything else. No more looked down upon merely as the land of snake charmers and elephants, India is today seen as an emerging superpower armed with its knowledge based economy. India represents the happy marriage of tradition and innovation. The common history of the country on the whole serves as the glue that unifies the cultural diversity aptly represented by its states. Just as religions that originated in India have exerted their influence on the present milieu, so have cultures that came in with the numerous invasions and immigrations. On its part, India has taught the world the virtues of tolerance and compassion that its sons-of-the-soil have been widely known for.

Biographies

  1. Swami Vivekananda
    1. Information on his Life
      Swami Vivekananda (Bengali: স্বামী বিবেকানন্দ Shami Bibekanondo), whose pre-monastic name was Narendranath Dutta (নরেন্দ্রনাথ দত্ত Nôrendronath Dotto, and who was also known as Swami Vividishananda) and was affectionately known to some as Naren (January 12, 1863 - July 4, 1902) was one of the most famous and influential spiritual leaders of the philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga.
    2. Famous Chicago speech by Swami Vivekananda
  2. Adi Shankracharya
    Adi Shankara (Malayalam: ആദി ശങ്കരന്‍, Devanāgarī: आदि शङ्कर, Ādi Śankara,  also known as Śankara Bhagavatpādācārya ("the teacher at the feet of God"), and Ādi Śankarācārya ("the first Shankara in his lineage") was the first philosopher to consolidate the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta, a sub-school of Vedanta. 
  3. Chhatrapati Shivaji
    Shivaji Bhonsle, also known as Chatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhonsle (Marathi: छत्रपती शिवाजी राजे भोसले) was the founder of Maratha empire in western India in 1674. Using guerrilla tactics superbly suited to the rugged mountains and valleys of the region, he annexed a portion of the then dominant Mughal empire. 
  4. Gautum Budha
    Siddhārtha Gautama (Sanskrit सिद्धार्थ गौतम, Pali Gotama Buddha) was a spiritual teacher from ancient Nepal and the historical founder of Buddhism. He is universally recognized by Buddhists as the Supreme Buddha of our age.
  5. M.K. Gandhi
    Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી, Hindi: मोहनदास करमचंद गांधी, IAST: mohandās karamcand gāndhī, (October 2, 1869 – January 30, 1948), was a major political and spiritual leader of India and the Indian independence movement. In India, he is recognized as the Father of the Nation.

 

Demography

  1. Urbanization in India : A Demographic Reappraisal
    The United Nations estimates indicate that at mid 1990s, about 43 per cent of the world population lived in urban areas. With the urban population growing two and a half times faster than its rural counterpart, the level of urbanisation is projected to cross the 50 per cent mark in 2005.
  2. Demographic facts about India
    The Indian Census began in 1872 and it is the largest source of statistics on the people of India. It brings out statistics every 10 years. For scholars and researchers, the Indian Census is an interesting data source. The census is available on various subjects: Population, Economy, Finance, Literacy, Sex ratio etc. There are sub topics in each subject, which deal with specific issues of that subject. IMR Rate, Birth Rate, death Rate in Population, Workers in Various sectors, Male Workers Female Workers, etc, in Economy, Female Literacy, Male Literacy in Literacy and so on. 
  3. Missing Women and India's Religious Demography
    The interaction between religion and fertility is the subject of intense academic and political debate in developing countries. This paper puts forward a new theory to provide an explanation for larger Muslim, relative to Hindu fertility, in the context of India.
  4. Demography & Religion in India , by Sriya Iyer
    This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.
  5. Demography of Islands in India , pdf document
    Indian states and union territories also consist of islands that are spread in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. People view these islands as romantic view tourist places with varied cultures and distinctive traits that differ from larger landmasses.
  6. The people of India- Demographic Information on Population, Age Structure, Life Expectancy at Birth, Ethnic Divisions, Religions and Languages.
  7. A Demography of India 's Literacy, Population, Labour & Economy

 

Culture

  1. Culture of India
    The culture of India was moulded throughout various eras of history, all the while absorbing customs, traditions and ideas from both invaders and immigrants. Many cultural practices, languages, customs and monuments are examples of this co-mingling over centuries.
  2. About Indiancuisines, marriages, education system, economy etc
    The Indian culture has enjoyed an international reputation for the brass and bell metal work. The technology of metalworking had been entrenched in the Indian Culture by 2500 B.C. This technology then was manifested in myriad exquisite and sturdy images and icons. 
  3. About Hindu Gods, Indian Classical Music & Dance
    1. About Hindu Gods
      Hinduism is supposed to be 'apauruseya', i.e., of impersonal origin & so also are the Gods of Hinduism. They are eternal & though the deities appear to be different & independent, they are really facets of the same Brahman, the Supreme God.    
    2. About Indian Music
      In India, there is a vast profusion of folk music which varies according to locality. Though folk songs also follow the same base, classical music requires immense training & practice. In Indian music, musical sound is called nada & nada is considered as Brahman or Divine Reality itself.       
    3. About Classical Dance
      The classical dance forms which have developed, have set rules that have been followed traditionally over the years. On the basic model, various gurus incorporate their own imaginative innovations, leading to various schools within a particular dance form. Apart from the gracious hand & leg postures & movements, the dancers have to acquire the skill of portraying various emotions faithfully in each expression on their face & each fluid movement of their hand, legs & in fact their whole body. Every part conveys some meaning in their graceful motion.   
    4. About Indian Architecture
      Civilisation in India had flourished along the banks of her rivers, off the sea-shores & in semi arid regions. Depending on the locale, materials like wood, mud, bricks, tatches woven of palm & coconut leaves have been used. Huge stones had also been used to create archways, temples etc.  
      India is the home of one of the Seven Wonders of the world - Taj Mahal.    
    5. Traditional Customs
      Traditional beauty treatments       have been handed down by word of mouth and practice down the generations in India. Quite a few of the methods and prctices followed by our elders had a very scientific and rational base with a major usage of items that we use everyday in the kitchen, (like milk, turmeric, curd, gram flours, etc..), leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds & the bark and roots from plants (like hibiscus leaves & flowers, henna leaves, baadaam, etc.)
    6. Photo Galleries
      Images of Gods, Temples, Paintings and Places of Interest
  4. Cultural beliefs/practices/customs that have been abolished by law:
    1. Sati:
      Volunteered/Forced killing of widow on husband's pyre. India was progressively occupied by the British, through the agency of the East India Company, throughout the 18th century. The company was directed by the government. The British, unlike earlier colonizers in the Americas, decided to practice religious toleration for their new Islamic and Hindu subjects.
    2. Dowry:
      Gift (Kind/Cash) given to Groom's Family by Bride's. Payment of a dowry, gift — often financial, has a long history in many parts of the world. In India, the payment of a dowry was prohibited in 1961 under Indian civil law and subsequently by Sections 304B and 498a of the Indian Penal Code were enacted to make it easier for the wife to seek redress from potential harassment by the husband's family. Dowry laws has come under criticism that they are misused by women and their families.

 

Economic History

  1. Economic History of India
    The Indus Valley civilization, the first known permanent and predominantly urban settlement that flourished between 2800 BC to 1800 BC boasted of an advanced and thriving economic system. Its citizens practiced agriculture, domesticated animals, made tools and weapons from copper, bronze and tin and traded with other cities. 
  2. The Economic History and the Economy of India
    Contains information on- The Economic System of India * Economic Reform in India As Of 1995 * Economic Reform in India As Of 1997 * Regional Economies * Population Density * Historic Problems of Calcutta * Economic History of Mumbai (Bombay) * Economic History of Delhi, Old and New * The Narmada River Project
  3. In defence of materialism in ancient India : A study of Carvaka/ Lokayata

 

History of Science & Technology

  1. In the course of developing a precise mapping of the lunar eclipse, Aryabhatta was obliged to introduce the concept of infinitesimals - i.e. tatkalika gati to designate the infinitesimal, or near instantaneous motion of the moon, and express it in the form of a basic differential equation. Aryabhatta's equations were elaborated on by Manjula (10th C) and Bhaskaracharya (12th C) who derived the differential of the sine function. Later mathematicians used their intuitive understanding of integration in deriving the areas of curved surfaces and the volumes enclosed by them.
  2. Astronomy & Physics in Ancient India
    In India, the earliest applications of chemistry took place in the context of medicine, metallurgy, construction technology (such as manufacture of cement and paints) and in textile production and dyeing. But in the process of understanding chemical processes, there also emerged a concomitant interest in attempting to describe the basic elements of matter - what they were composed of, and how they interacted with each other to produce new substances. 
  3. History of Indian Science & Technology:
    Overview of the 20-Volume Series By Rajiv Malhotra and Jay Patel- India’s historical contributions to science and technology are considerable, but are not well known. They have  been marginalized in the education system and in the media portrayals of India and its culture. There are many causes for this.... 
  4. History of Astronomy 
    India has one of the oldest and most well-documented tradition of scientific astronomy. As an offshoot, geometry, trigonometry, and algebra too developed. Indian astronomers had accurately calculated the value of pi and other constants. The oldest known exclusive text on astronomy is the Vedanga Jyotisha, though astronomical references are found in much older works. The Rigveda refers to the 27 constellations associated with the motions of the Sun and also the 12 zodiacal divisions of the sky.
  5. Science & Technology in Ancient India
    Ancient Indian philosophers believed that all elements except ether were physically palpable and hence comprised of minuscule particles. The smallest particle, which could not be subdivided, was called paramanu in Sanskrit (shortened to parmanu), from parama (ultimate or beyond) and anuatom). Thus, "paramanu" literally means "beyond atom" and this was a concept at an abstract level which suggested the possibility of splitting atoms, which is now the source of atomic energy. However, the term "atom" should not be conflated with the concept of atom as it is understood today.
    The 6th century BC Indian philosopher Kanada was the first person who went deep systematically in such theorization. Another Indian philosopher, Pakudha Katyayana, a contemporary of Buddha, also propounded the ideas of atomic constitution of the material world. All these were based on logic and philosophy and lacked any empirical basis for want of commensurate technology. (
  7. Why Science declined in Ancient India
    Dr. Gorakh Prasad writes that after Bhaskaracharya, it was considered a sin to make any progress. To find errors in old texts and correct them and to search for new things was totally banned.
  8. Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
    The prime objective of ISRO is to develop space technology and its application to various national tasks. ISRO has established two major space systems, INSAT for communication, television broadcasting and meteorological services, and Indian Remote Sensing Satellites (IRS) system for resources monitoring and management. ISRO has developed two satellite launch vehicles, PSLV and GSLV, to place INSAT and IRS satellites in the required orbits.

 

Military History

  2. Regimental Histories of some British Army Units
    Includes Regimental History, Lineages of British Infantry Regiments, and links to related information.
  3. A Military History of Medieval India by Major Gen. Gurcharn Sandhu
     "A Military History of Medieval India" by Major Gen. Gurcharn Singh Sandhu is a good source of reference on the military history of the Indian Subcontinent from the 11th to 18th Century. Wargamers will find the author's use of diagrams to illustrate battles, his detailed descriptions of army compositions and orders of battle very useful. The narration in general and of battles in particular is pleasant and absorbing even for the casual reader. The observations made by the author in his critiques of various battles are subjective. However Sandhu does meticulously present the facts and events beforehand.
  4. Naval Warfare in ancient India By Prithwis Chandra Chakravarti
    The  history  of  Indian  shipping  and  maritime  activities  goes back probably  to the early times of  the Rgveda (I, 48, 3 and I, 116, 5). The Jatakas, the Greek  and Roman authors, the early  Tamil  poems  as
    well as a host of archaeological discoveries in India and abroad--all  go to prove  that  long  before  the
    birth  of  Christ  the  Hindus  had  acquired  a fair knowledge  of the  art of navigation  and  that  they
    plied their boats not only on the inland  rivers  but also on the high seas.
  5. Ancient Indian Military History with special mention of the Vedic Period
    Dharmayuddha is war carried on the principles of Dharma, meaning here the Ksatradharma or the law of Kings and Warriors.
    The Hindu laws of war are very chivalrous and humane, and prohibit the slaying of the unarmed, of women, of the old, and of the conquered.
    Megasthenes noticed a peculiar trait of Indian warfare     they never ravage an enemy's land with fire, nor cut down its trees.
  6. Military History of Ancient India, By Gorkhali
    Warfare in ancient India centered around the chariot. Indian chariots were nothing like the light, sleek chariots of Egypt. They were massive, made of wood and iron, and intricately decorated in gold.
    The way in elephants were used in battle varied widely as well. One common tactic, used by Porus at the Hydaspes, was to place the elephants a distance apart, anywhere from 40 to 100 feet. These elephants would act like mobile fortresses, where the rest of the army could rally around. 
  7. War in Ancient India, by V.R. Ramachandra Dikshitar
    Here is a book of unusual importance for those interested in the study of Indian military tradition and the art of warfare in ancient India. Readers' attention is riveted in Indian historical cycle which begins with the early settlement of Indo-Aryans and ends in the epoch created by Vijayanagar empire. 
  8. French and Indian War: 
    Website dedicated to the 1755 Indo-Frech war. Contains in-depth details and statistics of the war including list of names of soldiers, dates and location of wars, strategies employed etc.

 

Politics

  1. Democracy in Ancient India by Steve Muhlberger, Associate Professor of History, Nipissing University .
    The supposed differences between "Western" and "non-Western" cultures are in this case, as in so many others, more a matter of ideological faith than of cool, impartial judgment. If we are talking about the history of humanity as a whole, democracy is equally new or equally old everywhere. Fair and effective elections, under adult suffrage and in conditions that allow the free discussion of ideas, are a phenomenon of this century. The history of democracy, properly so called, is just beginning. This article will examine one important case of government by discussion -- the republics of Ancient India. Although they are familiar to Indologists, these republics are hardly known to other historians. They deserve, however, a substantial place in world historiography. The experience of Ancient India with republicanism, if better known, would by itself make democracy seem less of a freakish development, and help dispel the common idea that the very concept of democracy is specifically "Western."
  2. Religion's place in Politics of Ancient India, By Sinha, B M -
    Most of the states in ancient India were politically stable. They often remained for long periods free from internal squabbles and intrigues of the kind we see today. This situation helped them a great deal in initiating measures aimed at improving the quality of life of the common people. A close study of the scriptures of ancient India reveals that the people during the Vedic and later periods firmly believed that the state had been set up by god Himself.
  3. Chanakya-
    Cunning Politician of the Mauryan Dynasty: According to a legend which is a later jaina invention, while Chanakya served as the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya, he started adding small amounts of poison in Chandragupta's food so that he would get used to it. The aim of this was to prevent the Emperor from being poisoned by enemies
  4. Chanakya Niiti-
    The momentous life of Chanakya reminds us of a revengeful saga where the individual is obsessed by the idea of taking revenge. But personal revenge was not the aim of Chanakya. He wanted that the kingdom should be secure and that the administration should go on smoothly, bringing happiness to the people. He thought that there were two ways of ensuring the happiness of the people. Firstly, Amatya Rakshasa had to be made Chandragupta’s minister; Secondly, a book must be written, laying down how a king should conduct himself, how he should protect himself and the kingdom from the enemies, how to ensure law and order, and so on.